Language in the Postcolonial Era: The Impact of Imperialism
By Gaya Chandrasekaran, Kayla Krueger and Sharanya Swaminathan, 8/24/2020
Introduction
Imperialists never intended to favor the colonized. As colonial powers encouraged dominance of their language, and in most cases, forbade natives to speak their own languages, the process of restoring indigenous languages has become increasingly difficult. Thus, the loss of language and subsequent loss of culture continues to be a pressing concern regarding the preservation of Indigenous values.
The French invasion of Vietnam provides a prominent example of this unfortunate phenomenon. Arriving in the 1860s and led by Napoleon III, the colonisation of Vietnam had devastating impacts on native culture. French culture was imposed upon the Vietnamese, and it became mandatory for children to be taught French in school. The Vietnamese language was forbidden, and individuals who spoke it faced severe punishments. Furthermore, it became mandatory for the native Vietnamese population to adopt French ways of life including altering their clothing, traditional lifestyle and habits, and the abolishment of traditional Vietnamese independence. As a result of this, many generations between the years of 1857 and 1945 – when Vietnam gained independence – experienced a significant loss of culture and language, and detachment from cultural values. However, upon gaining independence and in the years immediately after, there has been a significant restoration of Vietnamese traditions, but not to the extent that it was prior to the French invasion, due to extenuating Western influences.
In Sri Lanka, the British created new systems, resulting in the suppression of the Sinhalese language. While speaking Sinhalese was not actually banned, education systems were modified to be taught in English, which automatically meant that the Sinhalese people were required to learn English, abandoning their native language for a chance to succeed in a colonised environment. Similar to the French colonisation of Vietnam, in Sri Lanka, British customs and traditions were strongly encouraged and the working class was heavily exploited for rapid development of coffee and tea plantations, seen as the emergence of modern day agricultural capitalism. The stress placed on the use of English mediums created tension when Sri Lanka gained independence and re-established Sinhalese as the national language, as it disadvantaged Tamils who had arrived from India to Sri Lanka through a migration scheme facilitated by the British. The buildup of these tensions was eventually one of the instigating factors that led to the 26 year Sri Lankan Civil War which had devastating impacts on society.
These are just two examples of the impact of colonialism on language and culture. The reality is that colonialism has had a continued impact on the lifestyles of Indigenous peoples, past, present, and emerging. Many postcolonial writers and activists have been known to advocate for complete restoration of Indigenous culture, through the acceptance of Indigenous languages as national languages, granting land rights to native peoples, and reducing the discrimination that these people may face. Thus, colonialism has had and continues to have a diminishing effect on the importance and widespread knowledge of native languages and cultures in colonized regions.
Imperialists never intended to favor the colonized. As colonial powers encouraged dominance of their language, and in most cases, forbade natives to speak their own languages, the process of restoring indigenous languages has become increasingly difficult. Thus, the loss of language and subsequent loss of culture continues to be a pressing concern regarding the preservation of Indigenous values.
The French invasion of Vietnam provides a prominent example of this unfortunate phenomenon. Arriving in the 1860s and led by Napoleon III, the colonisation of Vietnam had devastating impacts on native culture. French culture was imposed upon the Vietnamese, and it became mandatory for children to be taught French in school. The Vietnamese language was forbidden, and individuals who spoke it faced severe punishments. Furthermore, it became mandatory for the native Vietnamese population to adopt French ways of life including altering their clothing, traditional lifestyle and habits, and the abolishment of traditional Vietnamese independence. As a result of this, many generations between the years of 1857 and 1945 – when Vietnam gained independence – experienced a significant loss of culture and language, and detachment from cultural values. However, upon gaining independence and in the years immediately after, there has been a significant restoration of Vietnamese traditions, but not to the extent that it was prior to the French invasion, due to extenuating Western influences.
In Sri Lanka, the British created new systems, resulting in the suppression of the Sinhalese language. While speaking Sinhalese was not actually banned, education systems were modified to be taught in English, which automatically meant that the Sinhalese people were required to learn English, abandoning their native language for a chance to succeed in a colonised environment. Similar to the French colonisation of Vietnam, in Sri Lanka, British customs and traditions were strongly encouraged and the working class was heavily exploited for rapid development of coffee and tea plantations, seen as the emergence of modern day agricultural capitalism. The stress placed on the use of English mediums created tension when Sri Lanka gained independence and re-established Sinhalese as the national language, as it disadvantaged Tamils who had arrived from India to Sri Lanka through a migration scheme facilitated by the British. The buildup of these tensions was eventually one of the instigating factors that led to the 26 year Sri Lankan Civil War which had devastating impacts on society.
These are just two examples of the impact of colonialism on language and culture. The reality is that colonialism has had a continued impact on the lifestyles of Indigenous peoples, past, present, and emerging. Many postcolonial writers and activists have been known to advocate for complete restoration of Indigenous culture, through the acceptance of Indigenous languages as national languages, granting land rights to native peoples, and reducing the discrimination that these people may face. Thus, colonialism has had and continues to have a diminishing effect on the importance and widespread knowledge of native languages and cultures in colonized regions.
A Case Study in Cameroon
For decades, the Francophones (French-speaking) and Anglophones (English-speaking) populations in Cameroon lived in harmony, despite the language divide. However, in the past two years, violence has broken out, leaving hundreds dead and even more displaced. This divide has brought Cameroon towards the possibility of a civil war.
The history of the Anglophone crisis dates back to 1961 with the Foumban Constitutional Conference that amalgamated both British Southern Cameroon and La Republique du Cameroun into one state. The city of Foumban had been chosen very carefully by the president of La Republique du Cameroun, Amadou Ahidjo, to create an artificial appearance of peace and safety in the region. Five days were spent writing the constitution, with supposed agreements on both sides. However, in 1972, Ahidjo declared the decision to change the Federal Republic into the United Republic of Cameroon, which violated multiple articles and would essentially erase the existence of the British Southern Cameroon. In the 1996 constitution, British Southern Cameroon would no longer have their own government or international boundaries. This was infuriating to the Anglophones as their representation and treatment as equals would soon begin to disappear.
Anglophones have long felt marginalized by a Francophone dominated society. The President of Cameroon, Paul Biya, is a Francophone who has been in office since 1982, re-elected again and again for a seven year term despite the lack of Anglophone votes. The education system is run by five ministries, none of which are Anglophone at all. The National Entrance Exams for schools are set by French educational systems, often only offered in French. Official and commonly used documents are shared in French, with no option for English translation making it difficult to read. It is an overt act of discrimination, building divides due to language in the area.
According to the Washington Post, Akole, an Anglophone living in Cameroon, said that his nephew was shot by the military and two of his sons went missing when troops attacked their village searching for separatists. He is one of many who felt that these losses pushed him towards the Anglophone separatist movement, who he says does not hurt innocent civilians in their movement for secession. Many advocates for separation call their movement the Ambazonia movement. Another account from the Washington Post, by 76 year old Aaron, stated that his home had been put on fire and people were shot dead by the military, causing him to flee. He no longer believes in a unified Cameroon, but rather a new Ambazonia. Many witnesses say that the military troops struggle to identify separatists from innocent civilians, leading to unfortunate and tragic casualties.
Anglophones have been organizing peaceful protests, especially among the lawyers and teachers who say that they have been forced to assimilate into the French education and law system. There are movements that have been advocating for a separation. The government says that these Anglophones have invoked the violence forcing the government to retaliate. However, the personal accounts from Anglophones state that they are attacked with unwarranted violence. According to the United Nations, 30,000 have fled to seek refuge in Nigeria and this number continues to rise. The 2016-2017 Cameroonian protests, also known as the Coffin Revolution, were a series of protests that occurred after Francophone judges had been appointed in Anglophone areas. The November 2016 protests led to two deaths and 100 arrested in Bamenda, sparking international response and internet outrage. The peaceful protests that followed also resulted in casualties. In fact, the October 1, 2017 peaceful march just after Anglophone Cameroons had declared independence from Francophone Cameroon consisted of celebratory songs and joy at the independence. The government responded with attacks, leaving 17 killed according to Amnesty International.
The Anglophone crisis is yet to be resolved. Innocent civilians and youth are being killed and attacked, and Anglophones are still being marginalized. In a society where 80% speak French and the rest English, it’s fair to say that Francophones dominate Cameroon. Regardless, the crisis with the language barriers has escalated far beyond territorial gains; it has led to limitations in regards to education, communication, and the rights of the people.
A Case Study in Algeria
Language – a powerful force that has united countries – has become a sensitive topic within politics and education in Algeria. What once was a country unified linguistically, there now is a vast divide between the use of its two main languages: French and Arabic. Although the majority of Algerians speak French, business and education is often conducted in Arabic. This poses an intricate problem, forcing the people to forgo their mother-tongue and opt for the one used in a professional world.
Algeria had been a part of French territory until the Algerian Revolution for independence in 1962. In the post-war reformation period, the country underwent an extreme “Arabization;” an act viewed as necessary to sever all ties to France, including those of language. Arabic became the language of the professional elite in Algeria, leading to ratification of Arabic as Algeria’s official language in 1990. The process of Arabization was utilized by Algeria to counteract relation to France, however it has proven to be quite a challenging prospect for Algeria in the modern world (Chanderli).
While Arabic is spoken in the professional realm of Algeria, French is spoken everywhere else. This poses a threat to Algerians from a business and educational standpoint. When children are raised speaking French, but are expected to speak Arabic in their education, it is quite a difficult transition. Lack of Arabic proficiency in children acts as a detriment to their education, as well as contributing to the demoralization of these children at an early age. Further complicating the issue, there are six different dialects of Arabic. When the national language and first language of the majority of citizens of Algeria don’t align, it serves an immediate threat to the overall clarity of the country.
For many Algerians, French is their first language, yet the right to speak freely is constantly threatened. The language issue has become a national debate in Algeria, with the rise of Arabic extremist groups threatening language autonomy threatening peace within the country. Recently, Arabic radicalism has mobilized, creating an innate threat to the democracy of the people. Algeria is on the brink of revolutions or a potential civil war, which further intensifies the language issue (Nossiter).
Overall, Algeria shows an extreme lack of linguistic peace, creating a hostile and unsafe environment. What is necessary in Algeria is a new declaration of language that ensures the most beneficial and prosperous outcome for all Algerians. The Algerian government has yet to do anything about this issue; however, it is imperative that reform occurs in order to avoid the escalation of violence surrounding this issue.
Language – a powerful force that has united countries – has become a sensitive topic within politics and education in Algeria. What once was a country unified linguistically, there now is a vast divide between the use of its two main languages: French and Arabic. Although the majority of Algerians speak French, business and education is often conducted in Arabic. This poses an intricate problem, forcing the people to forgo their mother-tongue and opt for the one used in a professional world.
Algeria had been a part of French territory until the Algerian Revolution for independence in 1962. In the post-war reformation period, the country underwent an extreme “Arabization;” an act viewed as necessary to sever all ties to France, including those of language. Arabic became the language of the professional elite in Algeria, leading to ratification of Arabic as Algeria’s official language in 1990. The process of Arabization was utilized by Algeria to counteract relation to France, however it has proven to be quite a challenging prospect for Algeria in the modern world (Chanderli).
While Arabic is spoken in the professional realm of Algeria, French is spoken everywhere else. This poses a threat to Algerians from a business and educational standpoint. When children are raised speaking French, but are expected to speak Arabic in their education, it is quite a difficult transition. Lack of Arabic proficiency in children acts as a detriment to their education, as well as contributing to the demoralization of these children at an early age. Further complicating the issue, there are six different dialects of Arabic. When the national language and first language of the majority of citizens of Algeria don’t align, it serves an immediate threat to the overall clarity of the country.
For many Algerians, French is their first language, yet the right to speak freely is constantly threatened. The language issue has become a national debate in Algeria, with the rise of Arabic extremist groups threatening language autonomy threatening peace within the country. Recently, Arabic radicalism has mobilized, creating an innate threat to the democracy of the people. Algeria is on the brink of revolutions or a potential civil war, which further intensifies the language issue (Nossiter).
Overall, Algeria shows an extreme lack of linguistic peace, creating a hostile and unsafe environment. What is necessary in Algeria is a new declaration of language that ensures the most beneficial and prosperous outcome for all Algerians. The Algerian government has yet to do anything about this issue; however, it is imperative that reform occurs in order to avoid the escalation of violence surrounding this issue.